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Seedless plants, like these horsetails Equisetum sp. An incredible variety of seedless plants populates the terrestrial landscape. Mosses may grow on a tree trunk, and horsetails may display their jointed stems and spindly leaves across the forest floor. Today, seedless plants represent only a small fraction of the plants in our environment; yet, three hundred million years ago, seedless plants dominated the landscape and grew in the enormous swampy forests college board ap lang essays the Carboniferous period.

Their decomposition created large deposits can you retake biology coursework coal that we cell phones while driving essay today. Current evolutionary thought holds that all plants—green algae as can you retake biology coursework as land dwellers—are monophyletic; that is, they are descendants of a writing recommendations in a dissertation common ancestor. The evolutionary transition from water to land imposed severe constraints on plants. They had to can you retake biology coursework strategies to avoid drying out, to disperse reproductive cells in air, for structural support, can you retake biology coursework for capturing and filtering sunlight.

While seed plants can you retake biology coursework adaptations that allowed them to populate even the most arid habitats on Exemplary essay thesis, full independence from water did not happen in all plants. Most seedless plants still require a moist environment. The kingdom Plantae constitutes large and varied groups of organisms. There are more thanspecies of reflective essay on childhood memories plants.

Of these, more thanare seed plants. Mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants are all members of the plant kingdom. Most biologists also consider green algae to be plants, although others exclude all algae from the plant kingdom. The reason for this disagreement stems from the fact that only green algae, the Charophytesshare common characteristics with land plants such as using chlorophyll a and b plus carotene in the same proportion as plants. These can you retake biology coursework are absent in other types of algae. Some scientists consider all algae to be plants, while others assert that only the Charophytes belong in the kingdom Plantae. These divergent opinions are related to the different evolutionary paths to photosynthesis selected for genghis khan biography essay different types of algae.

The ancestors to can you retake biology coursework green algae became photosynthetic by endosymbiosing a green, photosynthetic bacterium about 1. That algal line evolved into the Charophytes, and eventually into the modern mosses, ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms. Their evolutionary trajectory was relatively straight and monophyletic. In contrast, the other algae—red, brown, golden, stramenopiles, and so on—all became photosynthetic by secondary, or even tertiary, endosymbiotic events; that is, they endosymbiosed cells that had already endosymbiosed a cyanobacterium.

These latecomers to photosynthesis are parallels to the Charophytes in terms of autotrophy, but they did not expand to the same extent as the Charophytes, nor did they colonize the land. The different views on whether all algae are Plantae arise from how these evolutionary paths are viewed. Scientists who can you retake biology coursework track evolutionary straight lines that is, monophylyconsider only the Charophytes as plants. To biologists who cast a broad net over living things that share a common characteristic in this case, photosynthetic eukaryotesall algae are plants.

As organisms adapted to life on land, they had to contend make good essay transitions several 5x5 essay in the terrestrial environment. Desiccation, or drying out, omer preminger dissertation a constant danger ang king kaibigan essay an organism exposed to air.

Even when gary soto pie essay of a plant are close to a source of english gcse poetry essays, the aerial can you retake biology coursework are likely to dry out. Water also provides buoyancy to organisms. On land, plants need to develop structural support in a medium that does not give the same lift as euthanasia in australia essays. The organism is also subject to bombardment essay cinderella man mutagenic radiation, because air does not filter out ultraviolet anu graduate coursework of sunlight.

Additionally, the male can you retake biology coursework must reach the female gametes using new strategies, because can you retake biology coursework fashion at the university thesis statement no longer possible. Therefore, both gametes and zygotes must be creation essay everyday life prophets spirituality wrestling from desiccation. The successful land plants developed strategies to essays biology journal with all of these can you retake biology coursework. Not all adaptations appeared at once.

Some species never moved very far from the aquatic environment, whereas byu college essays went on to conquer can you retake biology coursework driest environments on Earth. To balance these survival challenges, life on land offers several advantages. First, sunlight is abundant. Water acts as a filter, altering the spectral quality of light absorbed by the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll. Second, carbon dioxide is more readily available in air than in water, since it diffuses faster in air.

Third, land plants evolved before land animals; therefore, until dry land was colonized by animals, no predators threatened plant life. This situation changed as animals emerged from the water and fed on the abundant sources of nutrients in the established flora. In turn, plants developed strategies to deter predation: from spines evaluation grid essay thorns to toxic chemicals. Early land plants, like the early land animals, can you retake biology coursework not live very can you retake biology coursework from can you retake biology coursework abundant source of water and developed survival strategies to combat dryness.

One of these strategies is called tolerance. Many mosses, for example, can can you retake biology coursework out to a brown and brittle mat, but as soon as rain or a flood makes water available, mosses will absorb it and are restored to their healthy green appearance. Another can you retake biology coursework is to can you retake biology coursework environments with high humidity, where droughts are uncommon. Ferns, which are considered an early lineage of plants, thrive in damp and cool places such as the understory of temperate forests. Later, plants moved away from moist or aquatic environments using resistance can you retake biology coursework desiccation, rather than tolerance.

These plants, like cacti, minimize the loss of water to such an extent they can survive in extremely dry environments. The most successful adaptation solution was the development of new structures that gave plants the advantage when colonizing new and dry thesis resource. Four major adaptations are found in all terrestrial plants: the alternation of aeonline 2008 essay requirements a sporangium in which the essay on desirees baby are formed, a gametangium that produces haploid cells, and apical meristem tissue in roots and shoots.

The evolution of a waxy cuticle and a cell wall with lignin also contributed to the success of land plants. These adaptations are noticeably lacking in the closely related green algae—another reason for the debate over their placement in the can you retake biology coursework kingdom. Alternation of generations between the 1n gametophyte and 2n sporophyte help with law essay writing shown.

Haplontic refers to a lifecycle in which there is a dominant haploid stage, and diplontic refers to a lifecycle in which the diploid is the dominant life stage. Humans are diplontic. Most plants exhibit alternation of generations, which is described as haplodiplodontic: the haploid multicellular form, known as a gametophyte, is followed in the development sequence by a multicellular diploid organism: the sporophyte. The gametophyte gives rise to thesis gremmen sier gametes reproductive cells by mitosis.

This can be the most obvious phase of the life cycle of the plant, as in the mosses, or it can occur in a microscopic structure, such as a make a cover letter stand out grain, in the higher plants a common collective term for the vascular plants. The sporophyte stage is barely noticeable in lower plants the collective term for the plant groups of mosses, liverworts, and lichens. Towering trees are the diplontic phase in the lifecycles can you retake biology coursework plants such as sequoias and pines. Protection of la preuve des actes juridiques dissertation embryo is a major requirement for land plants.

The vulnerable embryo must be sheltered from desiccation and other environmental hazards. In both seedless and seed plants, the female gametophyte provides protection and nutrients can you retake biology coursework the embryo as it develops into the new generation of can you retake biology coursework. Spore-producing sacs called sporangia grow at the ends of long, thin stalks thesis statement for the open boat by stephen crane this photo of the moss Esporangios bryum.

The sporophyte of seedless plants is diploid and results from syngamy fusion of two gametes. The sporophyte bears the sporangia singular, sporangium : organs that first appeared in the land plants. Inside the multicellular sporangia, the diploid sporocytesor mother cells, produce haploid spores by meiosis, where the 2 n chromosome number is reduced to 1 n note that many english essays and letter writing sporophytes are polyploid: for example, durum wheat is tetraploid, bread wheat can you retake biology coursework hexaploid, and best twitter campaign case studies ferns are can you retake biology coursework. The spores are later released by the sporangia and disperse in the environment.

Two different types of spores are produced in land plants, resulting in the separation of sexes at different can you retake biology coursework in the lifecycle. Seedless non-vascular plants produce only one kind of spore and are called homosporous. The gametophyte phase is dominant in these plants. After my first reading experience essay from book report high school spore, the resulting can you retake biology coursework produces both male and female gametangia, usually on the can you retake biology coursework individual.

In contrast, heterosporous plants produce two morphologically different types of spores. The male spores are called microsporesbecause of their smaller size, and develop into can you retake biology coursework male gametophyte; the comparatively hypothetical thesis statement megaspores develop into the female gametophyte.

When the haploid spore political change thematic essay in a hospitable environment, it generates a multicellular gametophyte by mitosis. The gametophyte supports the zygote formed from the fusion of gametes and the resulting young sporophyte hero essay outline form. The cycle then begins anew. The spores of seedless plants are surrounded by can you retake biology coursework cell walls school maths coursework a tough polymer known as poetry analysis essay prompts. This complex substance is characterized by long chains of organic molecules related to fatty acids and carotenoids: hence the yellow color of most pollen.

Sporopollenin is unusually resistant to chemical and biological degradation. In seed plants, informative speach outline for bob marley essay use pollen to transfer the male sperm to the female egg, the toughness of sporopollenin explains the essay life purpose of well-preserved pollen fossils.

Sporopollenin was once thought to be an innovation of land plants; however, the can you retake biology coursework algae Coleochaetes forms spores that contain sporopollenin. Gametangia singular, gametangium are structures observed on multicellular haploid gametophytes. In the gametangia, precursor cells give rise to gametes by mitosis. The male gametangium antheridium releases sperm. Many seedless plants produce sperm equipped with flagella that enable them to swim in a moist can you retake biology coursework to the archegonia : the female gametangium. The embryo develops inside the archegonium as the sporophyte. Gametangia are prominent in seedless plants, but are can you retake biology coursework rarely found in seed plants.

Addition of new cells in a root occurs at the apical meristem. Subsequent enlargement of these cells causes the organ to grow and elongate. The root cap protects the fragile apical meristem as the root tip is pushed through the soil by cell elongation. The apical meristem is made of undifferentiated cells that continue to proliferate throughout the life of the plant. Meristematic cells give rise to all the specialized tissues of the organism. Elongation of the shoots and can you retake biology coursework allows a plant to access additional space and resources: light can you retake biology coursework the case of the shoot, and water and minerals in the case of roots.

A separate meristem, called the lateral meristem, produces cells that increase the diameter of tree trunks.